221differences in wind resources did not explain the U.S.-China difference in wind power output. Wind quality and resources explain a small part (17.9% in 2012), but the main issues were related to turbine quality, curtailment, and connection to the grid.
222J. Grafström
160 000
140 000
)
W
120 000
M
(
ytic
100 000
a
p
a
80 000
c
d
ellats
60 000
n
I
40 000
20 000
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
China
USA
Fig. 1 Installed capacity (MW) in wind power by country from 2000 to 2016. Source: IRENA (2018), Renewable Energy Statistics 2018, The International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi
300 000
250 000
)
h
W
200 000
G
( n
oitare
150 000
n
e
g yticirtc
100 000
el
E
50 000
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
China
USA
Fig. 2 Electricity generation (GWh) from wind power by country from 2000–2017. Source: IRENA (2018), Renewable Energy Statistics 2018, The International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi Less from More: China Built Wind Power, but Gained Little Electricity
223During the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2006–2010), the domestic wind industry was prioritized (Feng et al., 2015). The production goal set in the plan generated supply problems. Overcapacity sent prices down in 2011: 30 gigawatts could be manufactured but annual demand was 18 gigawatts (Li, 2012; Zhang et al., 2015).
The Eleventh Five-Year Plan’s stipulations regarding foreign technology allowed in wind power drove foreign firms from China. The Chinese Power Purchase agreements stipulated that in wind turbines, 50% of content (and later 70%) should be local. The shift was significant: in 2000, almost 95% of installed Chinese turbines were imported and in 2005, around 70%. After the plan took effect, the proportion of foreign components dropped. In 2008, only 28% of turbine components were sourced abroad and by the end of 2013, it was less than 6% (Junfeng et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2015).
3
Two Cases: Powerplants Without Output, and Low
Technological Development
3.1
Technological Development: Patents at Home but Not
Abroad
Patent data is a popular variable in technological innovation research and the variable is often used to compare countries’ innovation activities. Although patents are a popular measure, they also suffer the curse, “What gets measured gets managed” (a summary of Ridgway, 1956). In China, an emphasis on patens as an output measure affected promotions and evaluations (Li, 2012). China’s surge of